Images

Opioid substances mimic the effects of endogenous opioids within the brain, binding to opioid receptors.

Alcohol interacts with neurons within the ventral tegmental area in several ways.

Schematic illustration of how the gut-brain axis may contribute to the spread of alpha-synuclein pathology (adapted from Breen et al 2019).

Parkinson’s disease gives rise to an array of gastrointestinal symptoms and clinical manifestations, including gastroparesis and impaired absorption, dysphagia & drooling, and constipation.

Illustrating potential non-motor features associated with Parkinson’s disease.

The CGRP peptide exerts its influence by binding to a CGRP receptor and activating intracellular signalling pathways, such as the cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) pathway.