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image Image Illustration of α-synuclein protein deposits in multiple organs outside the brain in Parkinson’s disease, including the skin, stomach, colon, and salivary glands.
Multi-organ α-synuclein deposits in Parkinson’s disease 

Parkinson’s disease pathology extends beyond the brain, with α-synuclein deposits found in organs like the skin, stomach, colon, and salivary glands.

04.06.2025 Parkinson’s Disease
image Image Illustration of the autonomic nervous system pathways involved in the spread of α-synuclein in Parkinson’s disease, including the vagus nerve, brainstem, and organs.
The autonomic nervous system in the spreading of α-synuclein 

The spread of misfolded α-synuclein through the autonomic nervous system is central to the progression of Parkinson’s disease pathology

04.06.2025 Parkinson’s Disease
image Image Diagram showing how genetic factors, non-genetic factors, and epigenetic mechanisms interact to alter LRRK2 activity and contribute to Parkinson’s disease.
The aetiology of Parkinson’s disease

The development of Parkinson’s disease involves both genetic and non-genetic factors, including epigenetic mechanisms that influence LRRK2 activity.

04.06.2025 Parkinson’s Disease
image Image Table showing genes linked to Parkinson’s disease, with inheritance patterns, clinical phenotypes, and gene functions like mitochondrial or lysosomal roles.
Genes known to be associated with Parkinson’s disease 

Genetic research has identified several high- and variable-penetrance genes associated with Parkinson’s disease, including SNCA, PINK1, PRKN, and GBA.

03.06.2025 Parkinson’s Disease
image Image Detailed diagram showing how mitochondrial dysfunction is involved in Parkinson’s disease, including mitophagy initiation, mtDNA maintenance, oxidative stress, and activation of glial cells. Educational resource from Neurotorium.org.
The importance of mitochondria in Parkinson’s disease 

Mitochondria play a critical role in Parkinson’s disease. Discover how mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and genetic variations drive PD pathology.

03.06.2025 Parkinson’s Disease
image Image Illustration showing evidence for the role of neuroinflammation in Parkinson’s disease, including immune system dysfunction, activated microglia, altered gut flora, genetic immune variations, and reduced PD risk from anti-inflammatory medication. Created for educational use on Neurotorium.org.
Evidence for the role of neuroinflammation in Parkinson’s disease 

Emerging evidence supports a strong link between immune system dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and the development of Parkinson’s disease.

03.06.2025 Parkinson’s Disease

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