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Functional neuroimaging studies commonly compare brain responses to substance-related cues versus neutral cues during fMRI or PET scanning and measure differential brain activation.

Recognition of addiction as a disorder of distributed brain circuits provides a framework for personalized assessment and treatment of addiction.

Repeated drug exposure shifts behavioural control from goal-directed, reward-driven actions mediated by orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)–dorsomedial striatum (DMS) circuits toward habitual and compulsive responding supported by the dorsolateral striatum (DLS).

Controlled movement relies on sensory feedback, particularly proprioception (the sense of body position in space and movement).

Continuous maintenance therapy is associated with a lower risk of relapse than intermittent treatment, supporting ongoing treatment strategies in schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders.

Treatment response tends to be higher during a first episode than during subsequent episodes, emphasizing the importance of early intervention and effective management.