Images

This image illustrates a stepwise approach to the selection of antiseizure medication (ASM) for epilepsy management.

About one in three people with epilepsy experience psychiatric comorbidities, influenced by both biological and psychosocial factors including stigma, social limitations, and the unpredictability of seizures.

This illustration outlines the different mechanisms linking epilepsy with comorbidities, including chance associations, causal pathways, resultant effects, shared risk factors, and bidirectional relationships.

Social and physical exposome factors—like poverty, pollution, and inequality—accumulate over time, shaping biological aging and cognitive decline. Through inflammation and cellular stress, these exposures drive neurodegeneration, highlighting the need for longitudinal, integrative research.

Central and peripheral causes of brain insulin resistance in schizophrenia